What the published literature actually reports.

• BPC-157 vs TB-5001 direct study
• GHK-Cu vs AHK-CuNo direct comparison
• Selank vs Semax3 direct studies
• Ipamorelin vs CJC-1295No direct comparison
• MOTS-c vs SS-31 (elamipretide)No direct comparison
• Retatrutide vs TesamorelinNo direct comparison
• PT-141 vs Melanotan 2No direct comparison
• HCG vs HMG3 direct studies
• CJC-1295 vs SomatropinNo direct comparison
• AOD-9604 vs TesamorelinNo direct comparison
• Epithalon vs Thymosin Alpha-1No direct comparison
• 5-Amino-1MQ vs SLU-PP-332No direct comparison
• NAD+ vs SS-31 (elamipretide)3 direct studies
• AOD-9604 vs 5-Amino-1MQNo direct comparison
• AOD-9604 vs MOTS-CNo direct comparison
• AOD-9604 vs RetatrutideNo direct comparison
• AOD-9604 vs SLU-PP-332No direct comparison
• ARA290 vs BPC-157No direct comparison
• ARA290 vs KPVNo direct comparison
• BPC-157 vs GHK-CuNo direct comparison
• BPC-157 vs KPVNo direct comparison
• CJC-1295 vs CJC-1295 + IpamorelinNo direct comparison
• DSIP vs PinealonNo direct comparison
• DSIP vs SelankNo direct comparison
• Epithalon vs GlutathioneNo direct comparison
• Epithalon vs MOTS-CNo direct comparison
• Epithalon vs NAD+No direct comparison
• Epithalon vs Pinealon11 direct studies
• Epithalon vs SS-31No direct comparison
• GHK-Cu vs EpithalonNo direct comparison
• GHK-Cu vs Glutathione15 direct studies
• GHK-Cu vs KPVNo direct comparison
• GHK-Cu vs Melanotan 2No direct comparison
• Glutathione vs NAD+29 direct studies
• HCG vs Kisspeptin-1021 direct studies
• HMG vs Kisspeptin-10No direct comparison
• Ipamorelin vs CJC-1295 + IpamorelinNo direct comparison
• Ipamorelin vs Somatropin10 direct studies
• KPV vs LL-37No direct comparison
• KPV vs TB-500No direct comparison
• Lipo-C Fat Blaster vs AOD-9604No direct comparison
• Lipo-C Fat Blaster vs Lemon BottleNo direct comparison
• LL-37 vs BPC-157No direct comparison
• MOTS-C vs 5-Amino-1MQNo direct comparison
• NAD+ vs 5-Amino-1MQ14 direct studies
• NAD+ vs MOTS-CNo direct comparison
• Oxytocin vs Selank2 direct studies
• PT-141 vs Kisspeptin-10No direct comparison
• PT-141 vs Oxytocin15 direct studies
• Retatrutide vs 5-Amino-1MQNo direct comparison
• Retatrutide vs MOTS-CNo direct comparison
• Retatrutide vs SLU-PP-332No direct comparison
• Selank vs PinealonNo direct comparison
• Semax vs DSIP7 direct studies
• Semax vs PinealonNo direct comparison
• SLU-PP-332 vs MOTS-CNo direct comparison
• SS-31 vs 5-Amino-1MQNo direct comparison
• SS-31 vs GlutathioneNo direct comparison
• TB-500 vs GHK-CuNo direct comparison
• TB-500 vs TB-500 + BPC-15719 direct studies
• TB-500 vs Thymosin Alpha-151 direct studies
• Tesamorelin vs CJC-129519 direct studies
• Tesamorelin vs IpamorelinNo direct comparison
• Tesamorelin vs MOTS-CNo direct comparison
• Tesamorelin vs SomatropinNo direct comparison
• Thymosin Alpha-1 vs KPVNo direct comparison
• Thymosin Alpha-1 vs LL-37No direct comparison
• Thymosin Alpha-1 vs VIP9 direct studies
• VIP vs LL-3710 direct studies

• 5-Amino-1MQReview2026

  Emerging opportunities for nicotinamide N-methyltransferase (NNMT) inhibitor clinical translation

  Trends in Pharmacological Sciences · review of NNMT inhibitor pharmacology, medicinal chemistry and translational prospects

  PubMed · 42067476
• AHK-CuReview2026

  A framework for the safety evaluation of peptides in cosmetics.

  Current Research in Toxicology · review of historical cosmetic peptide safety evaluation plus a proposed six-tool bioinformatic framework

  PubMed · 41953401
• AHK-CuIn vitro2026

  Copper(II)-Tripeptide Complexes as Potential Skin Healing Agents: Synthesis, Characterization, and Wound Repair Ability.

  ChemMedChem · synthesis and characterisation of copper(II)-tripeptide complexes with wound-repair assays

  PubMed · 42047624
• AHK-CuReview2026

  Overview of Short Peptides for Hair Loss.

  Biomedicines · narrative review of short peptides investigated for hair loss

  PubMed · 42072405
• AOD-9604Review2026

  Peptides for Targeting Chondrogenic Induction and Cartilage Regeneration in Osteoarthritis

  Cartilage · narrative review of chondroinductive peptides across in vitro and animal osteoarthritis models (online first September 2024; assigned to a 2026 issue)

  PubMed · 39291443
• AOD-9604Review2026

  Safety and Efficacy of Approved and Unapproved Peptide Therapies for Musculoskeletal Injuries and Athletic Performance

  Sports Medicine · narrative review contrasting approved and unapproved peptides in sports medicine, AOD9604 among them

  PubMed · 41966639
• AOD-9604Review2026

  The emerging landscape of performance-enhancing peptides modulating GH-IGF1 axis: bridging the gap between clinical evidence and patient self-administration

  Frontiers in Endocrinology · narrative review of GH-IGF1 axis peptides including GHRH analogues, secretagogues and hGH fragments

  PubMed · 42395176
• AOD-9604Review2026

  Therapeutic Peptides in Orthopaedics: Applications, Challenges, and Future Directions

  Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons: Global Research and Reviews · narrative review of peptides used in orthopaedic injury management

  PubMed · 41490200
• ARA290Animal in vivo2026

  Immunometabolic dysregulation drives selective executive cognitive dysfunction in male db/db mice

  Neurobiol Dis · male db/db mice and db/m lean controls on a touchscreen operant platform (pairwise visual discrimination and reversal learning), with glucose and insulin tolerance testing, flow cytometry and RNA-seq; ARA 290 treatment arm

  PubMed · 41933665
• BPC-157Animal in vivo2026

  Effects of BPC-157 and TB-500 on Achilles tendon healing in rats: A histopathological and biomechanical study

  Jt Dis Relat Surg · rat Achilles tendon transection and repair; 32 male Sprague-Dawley rats, 4 groups of 8 (control, BPC-157 10 ug/kg/day, TB-500 60 ug/kg/day, combination), intraperitoneal, 4 weeks

  PubMed · 42542926
• BPC-157In vitro2026

  Endothelium-Dependent Nitric Oxide-Mediated Vasorelaxant Effects of BPC 157 in Human Internal Mammary Artery

  J Clin Med · ex vivo human internal mammary artery rings from elective CABG surgery; n=12 segments, endothelium-intact and denuded, with and without L-NAME

  PubMed · 42123221
• BPC-157Animal in vivo2026

  Protective effects of BPC 157 in rats with experimentally induced lower extremity ischemia-reperfusion injury

  Sci Rep · rat hind-limb ischemia-reperfusion by abdominal aortic clamping (45 min ischemia, 2 h reperfusion); 24 male Wistar albino rats in 4 groups of 6

  PubMed · 42204242

Every compound

• Cognitive

  Clinical

  Oxytocin

  Oxytocin is a nine-amino-acid neuropeptide synthesised in the hypothalamus, with intranasal administration used since the mid-2000s as a research tool for probing social cognition, threat processing and affiliative behaviour in humans. The field is unusually large and unusually contested: early small-sample findings of enhanced trust, emotion recognition and amygdala modulation have been followed by large registered trials and preregistered meta-analyses showing small, heterogeneous and frequently null effects. Current syntheses point to sex-dependent amygdala modulation, a thalamus-striatum-insula circuit as the most reproducible neural signature, and a small significant signal in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Intranasal delivery to the brain, dose-response and the appropriate outcome measures all remain methodologically unresolved.

  Studies

  21

  Since 2023

  16

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Longevity

  Early clinical

  LL-37

  LL-37 is the sole human cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide, a 37-residue amphipathic alpha-helical peptide released by proteolytic cleavage of the hCAP18 precursor encoded by the CAMP gene. It is expressed by neutrophils, monocytes and epithelial cells, transcriptionally induced by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3, and acts through direct membrane permeabilisation of microbes, neutralisation of lipopolysaccharide, and receptor-mediated chemotaxis and immunomodulation. Its biological effect is strongly concentration- and context-dependent, and elevated LL-37 is implicated as a pathogenic driver in rosacea, psoriasis and atherosclerosis as well as a host-defence effector. The great majority of the literature is in vitro or animal work; human interventional data are limited to a small number of topical and oral formulations.

  Studies

  17

  Since 2023

  13

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Metabolic

  Clinical

  Retatrutide

  Retatrutide (LY3437943) is an investigational single-peptide triple agonist of the GIP, GLP-1 and glucagon receptors, first described in preclinical rodent pharmacology and phase 1 studies in 2022 and subsequently in phase 2 randomised trials in obesity, type 2 diabetes and metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease. Phase 2 reports documented dose-dependent reductions in body weight, HbA1c and liver fat content, alongside predominantly gastrointestinal adverse events. A registrational phase 3 programme (TRIUMPH-1 to TRIUMPH-4) and a separate TRANSCEND programme in type 2 diabetes and chronic kidney disease have been described in published design papers, and the first phase 3 readout (TRANSCEND-T2D-1) was published in The Lancet in 2026. As of August 2026 the compound was not an approved medicine in any jurisdiction.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  13

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Performance

  Preclinical only

  SLU-PP-332

  SLU-PP-332 is a synthetic small-molecule pan-agonist of the estrogen-related receptors (ERRalpha, ERRbeta and ERRgamma), a family of orphan nuclear receptors that act with PGC-1 coactivators to regulate mitochondrial biogenesis and oxidative metabolism. Reported work characterises it as an 'exercise mimetic' because it reproduces part of the acute aerobic exercise transcriptional programme in rodent skeletal muscle, with additional published effects in mouse models of diet-induced obesity, pressure-overload heart failure and kidney ageing. The evidence base is preclinical only: it consists of rodent in vivo studies, cell-based work, medicinal-chemistry optimisation and analytical/doping-control metabolite characterisation. No human clinical trial of SLU-PP-332 has been published or registered, and no human pharmacokinetic or safety data exist.

  Studies

  13

  Since 2023

  13

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Hormones

  Approved drug

  Somatropin

  Somatropin is a 191-amino-acid recombinant form of human growth hormone that acts through the growth hormone receptor and the downstream JAK/STAT pathway, largely via hepatic and local induction of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). It has been an approved therapeutic since the mid-1980s and carries one of the larger clinical evidence bases in endocrinology, spanning childhood and adult growth hormone deficiency, Turner syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, small-for-gestational-age short stature and idiopathic short stature. The contemporary literature is dominated by systematic reviews, network meta-analyses and consensus statements, with a recent centre of gravity on long-acting weekly analogues (somapacitan, somatrogon, lonapegsomatropin, pegylated formulations) benchmarked against daily somatropin. Long-term registry and cohort surveillance has focused on mortality, malignancy incidence and metabolic outcomes.

  Studies

  16

  Since 2023

  13

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Hormones

  Approved drug

  HCG

  Human chorionic gonadotropin is a heterodimeric placental glycoprotein hormone that shares an alpha subunit with LH, FSH and TSH and signals through the luteinizing hormone/chorionic gonadotropin receptor (LHCGR), reproducing LH activity with a substantially longer circulating half-life. Urinary-derived hCG and recombinant choriogonadotropin alfa are approved agents used to trigger final oocyte maturation and ovulation in assisted reproduction, to support Leydig-cell testosterone production and induce or maintain spermatogenesis in male hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, and historically as hormonal therapy for undescended testis. Serum hCG measurement is also a core diagnostic assay in pregnancy monitoring and in gestational trophoblastic disease. The evidence base is large and dominated by randomised trials and their syntheses, so recent systematic reviews, network meta-analyses and Cochrane reviews carry most of the weight; controlled evidence does not support hCG as a weight-loss agent.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  12

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Skin

  Clinical

  Healthy Hair, Skin & Nails Blend

  Biotin (vitamin B7) is an essential cofactor for five carboxylases, and frank biotin deficiency causes alopecia and dermatitis that resolve with repletion. In people without a deficiency, however, the evidence that supplemental biotin improves hair, skin or nail outcomes is weak: systematic and narrative reviews consistently find only a handful of small, biased or negative studies. High-dose biotin is also a recognised cause of clinically significant interference in streptavidin-biotin immunoassays, producing falsely raised or lowered results for thyroid, cardiac, hormone and other analytes. Other B vitamins have their own dermatological evidence base, with nicotinamide the best studied, showing benefit for keratinocyte-cancer chemoprevention in immunocompetent high-risk patients but no benefit in organ-transplant recipients.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  12

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Hormones

  Early clinical

  Kisspeptin-10

  Kisspeptin-10 (KP-10) is the C-terminal decapeptide fragment of the KISS1 gene product and an agonist at the kisspeptin receptor KISS1R (GPR54). Loss-of-function mutations in KISS1R were shown in 2003 to cause normosmic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, establishing kisspeptin signalling as an upstream regulator of gonadotropin-releasing hormone secretion. Human administration studies, largely conducted at Imperial College London, have examined intravenous, subcutaneous and intranasal kisspeptin and its longer isoform kisspeptin-54 in healthy volunteers and in reproductive disorders. Kisspeptin is an investigational agent; no kisspeptin peptide is approved as a medicine in any major jurisdiction.

  Studies

  16

  Since 2023

  12

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Skin

  Approved drug

  Melanotan 2

  Melanotan II and afamelanotide are synthetic analogues of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone that act at melanocortin receptors to increase eumelanin synthesis. Afamelanotide (a selective, largely MC1R-directed analogue) is an approved medicine for erythropoietic protoporphyria supported by randomised placebo-controlled trials and post-authorisation safety cohorts, and has been trialled with narrowband UV-B in vitiligo. Melanotan II is a non-selective, unlicensed peptide sold illegally for tanning; it has never been through a completed efficacy or safety programme, and its published human literature consists almost entirely of adverse-event case reports, including eruptive and dysplastic naevi, melanoma and mucosal melanoma, priapism, renal infarction and systemic reactions.

  Studies

  20

  Since 2023

  12

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Performance

  Preclinical only

  MOTS-C

  MOTS-c is a 16-amino-acid microprotein encoded within the mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene that acts as a retrograde signalling molecule, with reported effects on AMPK signalling, folate-methionine one-carbon metabolism, and nuclear stress-response gene expression. Interventional data on administered MOTS-c come almost entirely from rodent and cell-culture studies, in which the peptide improved insulin sensitivity, mitochondrial respiration and exercise capacity. Human research to date is observational or genetic: circulating MOTS-c has been measured as a candidate biomarker across metabolic, cardiovascular, renal and reproductive conditions, and a mitochondrial variant in the MOTS-c coding region (m.1382A>C, K14Q) has been associated with type 2 diabetes risk in East Asian men. No controlled clinical trial has tested exogenous MOTS-c administration in humans, so efficacy and safety in people are not established.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  12

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Hormones

  Approved drug

  HMG

  Human menopausal gonadotropin (menotropins) is a urinary-derived gonadotropin preparation containing both follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone activity, the latter contributed substantially by chorionic gonadotropin retained during purification. Highly purified formulations (hp-hMG) have been evaluated against recombinant FSH and against rFSH plus recombinant LH in a large randomised-controlled-trial literature covering ovarian stimulation for IVF/ICSI, ovulation induction, and combined gonadotropin therapy for spermatogenesis induction in male hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. A 2026 Cochrane update reported probable advantages for hMG/hp-hMG over rFSH in live birth and ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome, while other recent systematic reviews found comparable live birth with differing oocyte yields, and the field remains characterised by heterogeneity in dosing, protocol and endpoint definition.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  11

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Metabolic

  Clinical

  Lipo-C Fat Blaster

  Lipo-C refers to a compounded injectable mixture whose typical constituents are methionine, inositol, choline, L-carnitine and vitamin B12. The published literature addresses these substances individually rather than as a combined injection, and the bulk of that evidence comes from oral supplementation trials and observational nutrition studies. Component-level findings span body-composition meta-analyses for L-carnitine, hepatic steatosis work for choline, insulin-sensitivity and gestational diabetes meta-analyses for myo-inositol, small human studies of dietary methionine restriction, and status and route-of-administration analyses for vitamin B12. Evidence generated for one component under one route and dose does not transfer to a multi-ingredient injectable preparation.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  11

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Performance

  Early clinical

  NAD+

  Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) is a redox cofactor and enzyme substrate for sirtuins, PARPs and CD38, and tissue NAD+ concentrations decline with age in preclinical models. Because NAD+ itself is poorly absorbed orally, most human work has used precursors, principally nicotinamide riboside (NR) and nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN); randomised trials consistently show these raise circulating NAD+ two- to threefold and are well tolerated over weeks to months. Functional and clinical endpoints are far less consistent: individual trials have reported improvements in walking distance, insulin sensitivity and sleep quality, while meta-analyses of muscle, glucose and lipid outcomes have been null. Lifespan extension and stem-cell rejuvenation findings are from rodent studies and have not been demonstrated in humans.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  11

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Performance

  Approved drug

  SS-31

  Elamipretide (SS-31, MTP-131) is a mitochondria-targeted tetrapeptide that binds cardiolipin in the inner mitochondrial membrane, stabilising cristae architecture and improving electron transport efficiency and ATP synthesis. It has been studied in randomised controlled trials in Barth syndrome, primary mitochondrial myopathy, heart failure with reduced ejection fraction, Leber hereditary optic neuropathy and ischaemia-reperfusion settings, with mixed results: the Barth syndrome programme showed sustained functional gains in a small cohort, while the phase 3 MMPOWER-3 trial in primary mitochondrial myopathy missed its primary endpoints. On 19 September 2025 the FDA granted accelerated approval to elamipretide (FORZINITY, NDA 215244, Stealth BioTherapeutics) to improve muscle strength in adult and paediatric patients with Barth syndrome weighing at least 30 kg, based on an improvement in knee extensor muscle strength; continued approval is contingent on confirmatory trials. Evidence for use in healthy individuals or for athletic performance is absent.

  Studies

  16

  Since 2023

  11

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Metabolic

  Approved drug

  Tesamorelin

  Tesamorelin (TH9507) is a synthetic analogue of human growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) that stimulates endogenous, pulsatile growth hormone secretion via the GHRH receptor. It was evaluated in large multicentre phase 3 trials in people with HIV and excess abdominal fat, where visceral adipose tissue was the primary endpoint, and was subsequently approved for HIV-associated lipodystrophy. Later investigator-initiated trials extended the work to hepatic fat in NAFLD/MASLD, to neurocognitive endpoints in mild cognitive impairment and in HIV, and to lean mass and physical function. Recent literature is dominated by meta-analyses of the HIV lipodystrophy trials, MASLD reviews, and preclinical GHRH-agonist neurobiology.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  11

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Longevity

  Approved drug

  Thymosin Alpha-1

  Thymosin alpha-1 (Ta1, thymalfasin) is a 28-amino-acid peptide derived from prothymosin alpha and originally isolated from thymic tissue. It acts largely through Toll-like receptor signalling on dendritic cells and monocytes, influencing T-cell differentiation, thymic output and cytokine balance. It is registered as a prescription immunomodulator in a number of countries, principally for chronic hepatitis B and as an adjuvant in sepsis and oncology, and has been studied in more than thirty controlled human trials. It is not approved by the FDA or EMA.

  Studies

  16

  Since 2023

  11

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Skin

  Early clinical

  GHK-Cu

  GHK (glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine) is an endogenous human plasma tripeptide that binds copper(II) with high affinity. In cell culture it increases fibroblast collagen and glycosaminoglycan synthesis at picomolar to nanomolar concentrations, and gene-expression work reports broad modulation of extracellular-matrix, antioxidant and inflammatory programmes. Human data are limited: most published work is in vitro or in animal models, and the small number of controlled human trials of topical GHK-Cu have produced mixed results, including two randomised trials that found no advantage over comparator or placebo.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  10

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Skin

  Preclinical only

  KLOW Blend

  KLOW is a marketed combination of four peptides: BPC-157, TB-500 (a fragment-based thymosin beta-4 analogue), GHK-Cu and KPV. A systematic search of PubMed and Europe PMC returned no published study of this four-peptide blend in any model, and no pharmacokinetic, efficacy or safety data exist for the combination. The available literature is component-level: BPC-157 rests almost entirely on rodent work from a small number of laboratories with only two very small uncontrolled human pilot studies; thymosin beta-4 has two randomised phase 2 wound trials; KPV is supported by in vitro and animal anti-inflammatory work; and GHK-Cu is covered separately in this dataset. Only one published study examines any two of the components together.

  Studies

  16

  Since 2023

  10

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Metabolic

  Approved drug

  Lemon Bottle

  Injectable lipolysis has been studied mainly as deoxycholic acid (ATX-101), a synthetic bile salt approved for submental fat reduction on the basis of two phase 3 randomised trials (REFINE-1 and REFINE-2), and as compounded phosphatidylcholine/sodium deoxycholate formulations, which were never approved for this use. Preclinical work indicated that the deoxycholate component, acting as a detergent that disrupts cell membranes, was the principal adipocytolytic agent rather than phosphatidylcholine. The reported adverse-event profile includes injection-site swelling and induration, marginal mandibular nerve paresis, skin ulceration and necrosis, fibrosis, and post-procedural infection, with animal data documenting demyelinating nerve injury after intrafascicular exposure. The branded product marketed as 'Lemon Bottle' was not identified in any peer-reviewed clinical or mechanistic study, so the evidence described here relates to deoxycholic acid and phosphatidylcholine/deoxycholate rather than to that specific formulation.

  Studies

  17

  Since 2023

  10

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Performance

  Approved drug

  PT-141

  Bremelanotide (PT-141) is a synthetic cyclic heptapeptide analogue of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone that acts as a non-selective agonist at melanocortin receptors, with activity at MC4R in central nervous system pathways considered central to its effects on sexual response. It was first investigated as an intranasal agent for erectile dysfunction before being redeveloped as a subcutaneous on-demand injection, and was approved by the FDA in 2019 as Vyleesi for generalised acquired hypoactive sexual desire disorder in premenopausal women. The pivotal RECONNECT phase 3 programme and its open-label extension reported statistically significant but small improvements in desire and reductions in distress, alongside high rates of nausea, flushing and headache. Independent re-analyses and subsequent systematic reviews have debated the clinical magnitude of the effect, and use in men remains investigational.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  10

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Performance

  Clinical

  Superhuman Blend

  The published literature relates to the individual amino acids commonly used in performance blends - glycine, glutamine, arginine, citrulline and citrulline malate, the branched-chain amino acids leucine, isoleucine and valine, beta-alanine, taurine, L-carnitine and essential amino acid mixtures - rather than to any branded combination as formulated. Human randomised trials and meta-analyses dominate this evidence base, with endpoints spanning muscle protein synthesis, high-intensity and endurance exercise performance, markers of exercise-induced muscle damage, vascular and nitric oxide-related outcomes, and fatigue. Effect sizes are generally small and heterogeneous, and several recent meta-analyses report null or very low-certainty findings for specific endpoints. No study identified evaluated the constituents together as a single fixed-ratio blend.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  10

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Longevity

  Early clinical

  Glutathione

  Glutathione (GSH) is an endogenous tripeptide (glutamate-cysteine-glycine) that functions as the principal intracellular thiol antioxidant and redox buffer. Human research falls into three broad strands: pharmacokinetic work comparing standard oral, liposomal/micellar and intravenous delivery; dermatological trials of oral, topical and intravenous glutathione for skin pigmentation; and precursor-based repletion strategies, most prominently glycine plus N-acetylcysteine (GlyNAC), studied in ageing, HIV and metabolic disease. Trial sizes are generally small, outcome measures are heterogeneous, and results in neurodegeneration have been largely negative for direct glutathione administration while precursor approaches have shown more consistent biochemical effects.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  9

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Hormones

  Early clinical

  Ipamorelin

  Ipamorelin is a synthetic pentapeptide growth hormone secretagogue that acts as a selective agonist at the growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHS-R1a, the ghrelin receptor). It was first characterised in 1998 as the first secretagogue in its class to release growth hormone with potency comparable to GHRP-6 while not significantly elevating ACTH or cortisol above levels seen after GHRH stimulation. Preclinical work has examined longitudinal bone growth, bone mineral content, gastrointestinal motility, nociception and cisplatin-induced weight loss, and human pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modelling has been published. Clinical development advanced to a randomised placebo-controlled phase 2 trial in postoperative ileus after bowel resection, which did not meet its primary endpoint; recent literature consists largely of narrative reviews on unapproved performance-enhancing and therapeutic peptides.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  9

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Longevity

  Clinical

  VIP

  Vasoactive intestinal peptide is a 28-amino-acid neuropeptide that signals through the class B G protein-coupled receptors VPAC1 and VPAC2, with documented roles in pulmonary vasodilation, surfactant regulation, suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokine release, regulatory T cell induction, and synchronisation of circadian pacemaker neurons in the suprachiasmatic nucleus. Its synthetic form, aviptadil, has been tested in humans for COVID-19-associated acute hypoxaemic respiratory failure, sarcoidosis and erectile dysfunction. The largest randomised trial in respiratory failure (TESICO) found no significant clinical benefit for intravenous aviptadil versus placebo, and a 2025 systematic review of ARDS trials reported a pooled survival odds ratio of 1.01, while smaller inhaled-route and open-label studies reported favourable but non-definitive signals. An aviptadil-phentolamine intracavernosal combination is an established second-line agent in erectile dysfunction practice.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  9

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Metabolic

  Preclinical only

  5-Amino-1MQ

  5-Amino-1MQ (5-amino-1-methylquinolinium) is a cell-permeable small-molecule inhibitor of nicotinamide N-methyltransferase (NNMT), the enzyme that methylates nicotinamide and thereby consumes S-adenosylmethionine and diverts nicotinamide away from NAD+ salvage. Interest in the target followed a 2014 Nature report that antisense knockdown of NNMT in adipose tissue and liver protected mice against diet-induced obesity. Subsequent work characterised 5-amino-1MQ and related quinolinium inhibitors in diet-induced obese rodents, aged skeletal muscle, sarcopenia and peripheral artery disease models, alongside medicinal-chemistry and mechanism-of-inhibition studies. The published evidence base is entirely preclinical; no human clinical trial of 5-amino-1MQ has been reported in the peer-reviewed literature.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  8

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Recovery

  Preclinical only

  BPC-157

  BPC-157 is a synthetic pentadecapeptide derived from a fragment of a protein found in gastric juice. The evidence base is overwhelmingly preclinical: several hundred rodent studies report accelerated healing of tendon, ligament, muscle and gastrointestinal tissue, with mechanisms attributed to angiogenesis, VEGFR2 signalling and nitric oxide system modulation. Human data are limited to a small number of uncontrolled pilot studies and retrospective case series from a single private clinic, plus one ex vivo study on surgically discarded human arterial tissue. No completed randomised controlled trial and no approved formulation exist, and 2025-2026 systematic reviews in orthopaedic journals explicitly characterise the human evidence as insufficient.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  8

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Hormones

  Early clinical

  CJC-1295

  CJC-1295 refers to two related growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) receptor agonists derived from the N-terminal 29-amino-acid fragment of human GHRH. The DAC form carries a maleimidopropionyl linker that forms a covalent drug affinity complex with circulating albumin, extending the plasma half-life to roughly one to two weeks and producing sustained elevation of GH and IGF-1; the non-DAC form, more accurately termed modified GRF(1-29), lacks the linker and retains only the tetrasubstituted backbone modifications that resist dipeptidyl peptidase-IV cleavage, giving a short duration of action comparable to sermorelin. Human data are confined to a small number of phase I and phase II studies of the DAC form conducted in 2005-2009, which established dose-dependent, prolonged GH and IGF-1 elevation with preserved GH pulsatility. No peer-reviewed randomised controlled trial of the non-DAC modified GRF(1-29) form was located, and most literature published since 2019 concerns anti-doping detection methodology or narrative reviews of unapproved peptide use rather than new clinical data.

  Studies

  16

  Since 2023

  8

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Longevity

  Early clinical

  Epithalon

  Epithalon (also written Epitalon) is a synthetic tetrapeptide, Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly (AEDG), derived from the pineal gland extract preparation Epithalamin. Published work reports induction of telomerase activity and telomere elongation in cultured human cells, modulation of circadian and pineal gene expression, antioxidant effects, and extension of median lifespan in Drosophila and rodent models. The great majority of this literature originates from a single Russian research group, with a small number of independent in vitro replications appearing between 2022 and 2025. No registered, placebo-controlled randomised trial of the tetrapeptide in humans has been published in the indexed literature.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  8

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Recovery

  Early clinical

  TB-500

  Thymosin beta-4 (Tb4) is a 43-amino-acid endogenous actin-sequestering peptide with a large preclinical literature on tissue repair, angiogenesis, anti-fibrotic activity and inflammation resolution. TB-500 is the synthetic Ac-LKKTETQ fragment marketed as a Tb4 analogue; almost all published biology concerns full-length Tb4 rather than the fragment, and the two are frequently conflated. Human evidence is more developed than for most peptides in this category, including completed phase 1 safety studies, a phase 2 dry eye trial and a 2025 study reporting outcomes in both mice and STEMI patients, but no product is approved for musculoskeletal recovery.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  8

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Recovery

  Early clinical

  ARA290

  ARA290 (cibinetide) is an 11-amino-acid non-erythropoietic peptide engineered from the helix B domain of erythropoietin, designed to activate the innate repair receptor (an EPO receptor/CD131 heteromer) without stimulating erythropoiesis. Of the compounds in this category it has the most developed human evidence: multiple completed randomised placebo-controlled phase 2 trials in sarcoidosis-associated small fibre neuropathy, type 2 diabetes with painful neuropathy, and diabetic macular edema. Results have generally shown improvement in patient-reported neuropathic symptoms and in corneal nerve fibre measures, but no regulatory approval has followed and no phase 3 programme has reported.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  7

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Skin

  Preclinical only

  AHK-Cu

  AHK-Cu (L-alanyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine copper(II), INCI-adjacent to the cosmetic ingredient Tripeptide-3) is a structural analogue of GHK-Cu in which glycine is replaced by alanine. The directly published evidence base is very small: a single ex vivo and cell-culture study of human hair follicles and dermal papilla cells is the principal dermatological source, supplemented by a topical delivery study of Tripeptide-3 for facial sebum and by work on a vitamin C-conjugated AHK derivative in a non-cutaneous model. Most claims made for AHK-Cu are extrapolated from the wider copper-tripeptide literature rather than from AHK-specific data.

  Studies

  10

  Since 2023

  6

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Recovery

  Preclinical only

  KPV

  KPV is the C-terminal tripeptide of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, alpha-MSH(11-13). Its evidence base is entirely preclinical and is concentrated in gut inflammation, where oral or rectal delivery via the PepT1 di/tripeptide transporter reduces colitis severity in rodent models, and in topical or barrier-protective applications in keratinocytes. A substantial share of the recent literature is formulation science (nanoparticles, hydrogels, microneedles) rather than new pharmacology. There are no human trials of KPV for any indication.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  6

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Hormones

  Early clinical

  CJC-1295 + Ipamorelin

  No peer-reviewed clinical trial administering CJC-1295 together with ipamorelin was identified; a PubMed query intersecting both peptide names returned only narrative reviews, doping-control analytical methods and product-quality analyses, with no interventional study of the pair. The available evidence is therefore component-level, comprising randomised human studies of CJC-1295 (a long-acting GHRH analogue) and of ipamorelin (a selective GHS-R1a agonist) evaluated separately, together with an older body of human work on co-administration of GHRH with growth hormone-releasing peptides or ghrelin, which established that the two receptor pathways interact more than additively. Recent 2024-2026 literature addressed this combination almost exclusively as an unapproved, compounded product used outside regulated medicine, and characterised its clinical evidence base as absent rather than negative.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  5

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Recovery

  Preclinical only

  TB-500 + BPC-157

  One published study has directly tested BPC-157 and TB-500 together against each agent alone, and it found no additive benefit. Beyond that single rat Achilles tendon experiment and one retrospective human chart review in which some knee-pain patients received BPC 157 combined with thymosin beta-4, there is no peer-reviewed evidence for the combination. All other support is component-level: the two peptides have separate preclinical literatures that have been reviewed together in sports-medicine journals, but no synergy has been demonstrated in any model.

  Studies

  8

  Since 2023

  5

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Metabolic

  Early clinical

  AOD-9604

  AOD-9604 is a synthetic hexadecapeptide corresponding to the C-terminal lipolytic domain of human growth hormone (Tyr-hGH 177-191, commonly written as hGH fragment 176-191). Preclinical work published between 1993 and 2001 characterised the fragment's effects on lipolysis, lipogenesis and fat oxidation in rodent models and reported that these effects occurred without measurable interaction with the hGH receptor or IGF-1 elevation. The compound subsequently entered human obesity trials, whose pooled safety and tolerability data were published in 2013, and non-clinical genotoxicity and chronic toxicology data supporting a food-ingredient position were published in 2014; no efficacy trial has appeared as a standalone peer-reviewed report. Later literature is dominated by anti-doping analytical chemistry, a rabbit intra-articular osteoarthritis study, and narrative reviews of peptides in orthopaedics and sports medicine.

  Studies

  17

  Since 2023

  4

  Newest

  2026

  Read the evidence
• Cognitive

  Approved drug

  Semax

  Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide, Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, consisting of the ACTH(4-7) fragment extended with a C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide that confers resistance to enzymatic degradation. It lacks corticotropic activity and is registered in Russia for ischaemic stroke, optic nerve disease and cognitive indications. Its best-characterised actions are regulation of BDNF and NGF expression and broad transcriptomic modulation of inflammatory and neurosignalling genes in rodent cerebral ischaemia models. Human evidence is dominated by Russian clinical studies of stroke and optic neuropathy, with two small placebo-controlled fMRI studies in healthy volunteers; no regulatory-grade Western trial exists.

  Studies

  18

  Since 2023

  10

  Newest

  2025

  Read the evidence
• Cognitive

  Preclinical only

  Pinealon

  Pinealon is the synthetic tripeptide Glu-Asp-Arg (EDR), one of the short peptide bioregulators developed by Khavinson and colleagues at the St Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology. The proposed mechanism is epigenetic: the peptide is described as entering the nucleus and binding specific DNA sequences and histone proteins, thereby modulating expression of genes involved in apoptosis, antioxidant defence and neuroplasticity. The available evidence is almost entirely in vitro or rodent work from this single research group, supplemented by molecular-modelling studies; controlled human data are limited to small Russian occupational and geriatric studies of peptide combinations rather than EDR alone.

  Studies

  18

  Since 2023

  3

  Newest

  2024

  Read the evidence
• Cognitive

  Preclinical only

  DSIP

  Delta sleep-inducing peptide is a nonapeptide (Trp-Ala-Gly-Gly-Asp-Ala-Ser-Gly-Glu) isolated in 1977 from cerebral venous blood of sleep-induced rabbits. Despite five decades of study, no DSIP gene, precursor protein or receptor has been identified, and the peptide's status as an endogenous sleep factor remains contested. Human work is concentrated in the 1980s and early 1990s and includes small double-blind studies in insomnia, chronic pain and opioid withdrawal with inconsistent results; recent research is almost entirely rodent work on stroke, stress and drug-delivery constructs.

  Studies

  17

  Since 2023

  1

  Newest

  2024

  Read the evidence
• Cognitive

  Early clinical

  Selank

  Selank is a synthetic heptapeptide (Thr-Lys-Pro-Arg-Pro-Gly-Pro) derived from the immunomodulatory tetrapeptide tuftsin, developed at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow. Proposed mechanisms include inhibition of enkephalin-degrading enzymes, allosteric modulation of GABA-A receptor signalling, and regulation of BDNF and inflammation-related gene expression. Human data consist of a small number of Russian comparative trials in generalised anxiety disorder and neurasthenia, plus one placebo-controlled resting-state fMRI study in healthy volunteers. Almost the entire literature originates from a small group of Russian laboratories, and independent Western replication is absent.

  Studies

  15

  Since 2023

  0

  Newest

  2022

  Read the evidence

For research purposes only. Not for human consumption, diagnosis, treatment, or prevention of any condition. Nothing on these pages is medical advice.